For example
For instance
Namely
The most common way of giving examples is by using for example or for instance.
Namely refers to something by name.
"There are two problems: namely, the expense and the time."
Adding information
And
In addition
As well as
Also
Too
Furthermore
Moreover
Apart from
In addition to
Besides
Ideas are often linked by and. In a list, you put a comma between each item, but not before and.
"We discussed training, education and the budget."
Also is used to add an extra idea or emphasis. "We also spoke about marketing."
You can use also with not only to give emphasis.
"We are concerned not only by the costs, but also by the competition."
We don't usually start a sentence with also. If you want to start a sentence with a phrase that means also, you can use In addition, or In addition to this…
As well as can be used at the beginning or the middle of a sentence.
"As well as the costs, we are concerned by the competition."
"We are interested in costs as well as the competition."
Too goes either at the end of the sentence, or after the subject and means as well.
"They were concerned too."
"I, too, was concerned."
Apart from and besides are often used to mean as well as, or in addition to.
"Apart from Rover, we are the largest sports car manufacturer."
"Besides Rover, we are the largest sports car manufacturer."
Moreover and furthermore add extra information to the point you are making.
"Marketing plans give us an idea of the potential market. Moreover, they tell us about the competition."
Summarising
In short
In brief
In summary
To summarise
In a nutshell
To conclude
In conclusion
We normally use these words at the beginning of the sentence to give a summary of what we have said or written.
Sequencing ideas
The former, … the latter
Firstly, secondly, finally
The first point is
Lastly
The following
The former and the latter are useful when you want to refer to one of two points.
"Marketing and finance are both covered in the course. The former is studied in the first term and the latter is studied in the final term."
Firstly, … secondly, … finally (or lastly) are useful ways to list ideas.
It's rare to use "fourthly", or "fifthly". Instead, try the first point, the second point, the third point and so on.
The following is a good way of starting a list.
"The following people have been chosen to go on the training course: N Peters, C Jones and A Owen."
Giving a reason
Due to / due to the fact that
Owing to / owing to the fact that
Because
Because of
Since
As
Due to and owing to must be followed by a noun.
"Due to the rise in oil prices, the inflation rate rose by 1.25%."
"Owing to the demand, we are unable to supply all items within 2 weeks."
If you want to follow these words with a clause (a subject, verb and object), you must follow the words with the fact that.
"Due to the fact that oil prices have risen, the inflation rate has gone up by 1%25."
"Owing to the fact that the workers have gone on strike, the company has been unable to fulfil all its orders."
Because / because of
Because of is followed by a noun.
"Because of bad weather, the football match was postponed."
Because can be used at the beginning or in the middle of a sentence. For example, "Because it was raining, the match was postponed."
"We believe in incentive schemes, because we want our employees to be more productive."
Since / as
Since and as mean because.
"Since the company is expanding, we need to hire more staff."
"As the company is expanding, we need to hire more staff."
Giving a result
Therefore
So
Consequently
This means that
As a result
Therefore, so, consequently and as a result are all used in a similar way.
"The company are expanding. Therefore / So / Consequently / As a result, they are taking on extra staff."
So is more informal.
Contrasting ideas
But
However
Although / even though
Despite / despite the fact that
In spite of / in spite of the fact that
Nevertheless
Nonetheless
While
Whereas
Unlike
In theory… in practice…
But is more informal than however. It is not normally used at the beginning of a sentence.
"He works hard, but he doesn't earn much."
"He works hard. However, he doesn't earn much."
Although, despite and in spite of introduce an idea of contrast. With these words, you must have two halves of a sentence.
"Although it was cold, she went out in shorts."
"In spite of the cold, she went out in shorts."
Despite and in spite of are used in the same way as due to and owing to. They must be followed by a noun. If you want to follow them with a noun and a verb, you must use the fact that.
"Despite the fact that the company was doing badly, they took on extra employees."
Nevertheless and nonetheless mean in spite of that or anyway.
"The sea was cold, but he went swimming nevertheless." (In spite of the fact that it was cold.)
"The company is doing well. Nonetheless, they aren't going to expand this year."
While, whereas and unlike are used to show how two things are different from each other.
"While my sister has blue eyes, mine are brown."
"Taxes have gone up, whereas social security contributions have gone down."
"Unlike in the UK, the USA has cheap petrol."
In theory… in practice… show an unexpected result.
"In theory, teachers should prepare for lessons, but in practice, they often don't have enough time."
French list
Note: the carracter '<>' represents 'opposite'.
à (to, at, in + city).
Je parle à Paul. (I am speaking toPaul).
Je travaille à trois heures. (I work at 3).
Je travaille à Paris. (in + city) (I work in Paris).
(à + le = au, à + les = aux).
de (from, of, about).
Je rentre de Paris. (I am coming back from Paris).
Un kilo de bananes. (One kilo of banana).
Je parle de Paul. (I am talking about Paul).
(de + le = du, de + les = des).
(de also takes élision and becomes d' in front of a vowel or an h).
chez (at/to someone's place).
Je suis chez Anne. (I am at Ann's place).
Note ; Je vais chez moi =I'm going home.
en (in, by).
Elle travaille en France (in+feminine country) (I work in France).
Nous sommes en juin.(en + month) (we're inJune).
Nous sommes en 2007 (en + year) (we're in 2007).
Elle voyage en voiture (en + transportation inside which you are) (She is travelling by car).
sur <> sous (on <> under).
Le livre est sur la table. (the book is on the table).
Non, il est sous la table. (no, it's under the table).
au dessus de <> en dessous de (above <> under - without touching the object)
Au dessus du sofa, il y a un tableau. (above the sofa, there is a painting).
En dessous du sofa, il y a une balle. (under the sofa, there is a ball).
dessus <> dessous (above/over/on top <> underneath - at the end of a sentence).
Le coussin va dessus, et la balle dessous. (the cushion goes on top, and the ball underneath).
dans (inside, in, within).
Le livre est dans la table. (the book is inside the table).
le film est dans trois heures (the movie is in 3 hours).
j'arrive dans deux minutes (I'll be here within 2 minutes).
dedans <> dehors (in,inside <> out, outside at the end of a sentence).
Le chien est dans l'appartement ? (Is the dog in the apartment ?).
Oui, il est dedans. (yes, he's inside).
Non, il est dehors. (No, he's outside).
devant <> derrière. (in front of <> behind).
Devant la maison, il y a un jardin. (in front of the house, there's a garden).
Derrière la maison, il y a une piscine. (behind the house, there is a swimming-pool).
En face de (facing, across from).
Le magasin est en face du musée. (the shop is across from the museum).
à côté de/ près de (beside, near, next to).
Le magasin est à côté du musée. (the shop is next/near/beside the museum).
Il habite près de chez moi. (he lives near my house).
loin de (far from).
Il habite loin de chez moi. (he lives far from me).
entre (between).
Il habite entre la rue de Passy et la rue d'Ys. (he lives between Passy and Ys streets).
parmi (among).
Il y a un traitre parmi nous. (there is a traitor among us).
au milieu de (in the middle of).
Ce village est au milieu de nulle part. (this village is in the middle of nowhere).
autour de (around)
je mets mon écharpe autour de mon cou. (I put my scarf around my neck).
en dehors de / hors de (outside from)
en dehors de lui, personne ne sait. (Oustide from him, nobody knows).
par (through).
Je passe par Paris (I go through Paris).
Note ; par ici ! (this way !)
Il habite par ici. (he lives around here).
vers (around/toward).
Je dîne vers 1 heure. (I have lunch around 1).
Il vient vers moi. (he is coming toward me).
depuis (since, for).
Nous parlons depuis 10 minutes. (we've been talking for 10 minutes).
J'habite à Paris depuis juillet. (I've been living in Paris since July).
pendant / durant (during, while, for)
Pendant que je travaille, il s'amuse. (he's having fun while I am working).
Il pleut pendant deux heures (It rains for 2 hours).
après <> avant (after <> before)
Après vous ! (after you).
Je dîne avant de sortir. (I have dinner before I go out).
jusqu'à (until, up to).
Je travaille jusqu'à 5 heures. (I work until 5).
Sa propriété va jusqu'à l'arbre. (his lot goes up to the tree).
d'abord (first) - et puis (then).
D'abord, vous étudiez la leçon, et puis vous faîtes les exercices. (your first study the lesson, then you do the exercises).
quand (when - mostly used in questions).
Quand arrive-t-il ? (when does he arrive ?).
Je ne sais pas quand il arrive. (I dont know when he arrives).
lorsque (when - used for simultaneity).
Il est content lorsqu'il mange. (he's happy when he eats).
Il y a (ago/there is-there are).
Je suis arrivé il y a 3 semaines. (I arrived 3 weeks ago).
Il y a une pomme sur la table. (there is an apple on the table).
environ (approximately).
Il est environ minuit. (It's approximately midnight).
avec (with).
Il est avec elle. (he is with her).
sans (without).
Il ne peut pas lire sans lunettes. (he cannot read without glasses).
pour (for, in order to).
Je travaille pour elle. (I work for her).
Je travaille pour gagner de l'argent. (I work in order to earn money).
mais (but).
Je parle français mais je ne parle pas espagnol. (I speak French, but I don't speak Spanish).
contre (against).
Mettez la table contre le mur. (put the table against the wall).
Il est contre le racisme. (he is against racism).
au contraire (on the contrary).
Il pense que j'aime Paul. Au contraire, je le déteste ! (he thinks I am in love with Paul. On the contrary, I hate him !).
en fait (in fact).
En fait, je le trouve stupide. (in fact, I think he is stupid).
en plus (furthermore).
En plus, il sent mauvais. (Furthermore, he smells bad).
quant à (as for).
Quant à Pierre, il est laid. (as for Pierre, he is ugly).
en effet (indeed).
En effet, tu es difficile (you are picky, indeed).
au sujet de (about, concerning)
Je dois vous parlez au sujet d'Anne. (I have to tell you about Anne).
d'après / suivant / selon (according to).
D'après lui, elle n'est pas française. (according to him, she's not French).
Selon moi, la vie est magnifique. (according to me, life is beautiful).
presque (almost)
Il est presque minuit. (it's almost midnight).
parce que (because - as an answer to pourquoi).
- pourquoi est-ce que vous étudiez l'espagnol ? (why are you studying Spanish ?)
- parce que je veux habiter en Espagne. (Because I want to live in Spain.)
car (because - inside a sentence - volunteering some additional info)
J'étudie l'espagnol car je veux habiter en Espagne. (I study Spanish because I want to live in Spain).
puisque (since).
Puisque tu ne parles pas espagnol, tu ne peux pas travailler en Espagne. (since you don't speak Spanish, you cannot work in Spain).
alors (then).
Alors, je suis partie. (then, I left).
donc (therefore, so).
Je pense, donc je suis. (I think, therefore I am).
si <> sinon (if <> if not).
Si Pierre gagne, c'est formidable, sinon, ce n'est pas la fin du monde. (if Pierre wins, it's great, if not, it is not the end of the world).
enfin (anyway / at last).
Enfin, tu comprends ? (anyway, you understand ?)
J'ai enfin teminé cette liste. (At last, I finished that list).
Click HERE for practice.
